Table 4 Categorization of Spin according to Lazarus [30]
Type | Category of Spin | Strategy Used | Definition | Quantity | Frequency(%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3 M | Inadequate extrapolation | Inadequate extrapolation to larger population | Results are generalized to another population, intervention or outcome than those of the study (such as surrogate outcomes) | 15 | 30.61 |
3N | Inadequate interpretation | Inadequate implication for clinical practice | Authors recommend the use of therapeutic intervention for clinical practice | 10 | 20.41 |
1B | Misleading reporting | Selective reporting | Only a subset of the original outcomes or analysis planned in a study is fully reported | 6 | 12.25 |
3O | Inadequate extrapolation | Other | Evidence of spin not classified under other criteria | 5 | 10.21 |
1D | Misleading reporting | Use of linguistic spin | Any word or expression emphasizing the beneficial effect of the therapeutic intervention | 4 | 8.16 |
2G | Inadequate interpretation | Claim an effect for non-statistically significant results | Therapeutic intervention is presented as effective despite a non-statistically significant result | 3 | 6.12 |
2 J | Inadequate interpretation | Causal language or causal claim | Results are presented with a sentence implying a cause-and- effect link between the intervention and the outcome | 3 | 6.12 |
2 K | Inadequate interpretation | Claim of any significant difference despite lack of statistical test | Therapeutic intervention and comparator are compared despite no proper statistical test reported | 3 | 6.12 |